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Medieval architecture

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
12th-century Romanesque nave of Durham Cathedral with rib vaulting.

Medieval architecture was the art and science of designing and constructing buildings in the Middle Ages. The major styles of the period included pre-Romanesque, Romanesque, and Gothic. In the fifteenth century, architects began to favour classical forms again, in the Renaissance style, marking the end of the medieval period. Many examples of religious, civic, and military architecture from the Middle Ages survive throughout Europe.

Styles

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Pre-Romanesque

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The church of Santa María del Naranco, originally a palace, built in the pre-Romanesque Asturian style.

The pre-Romanesque period lasted from the beginning of the Middle Ages (around 500 AD) to the emergence of the Romanesque style (from the 10th century). Much of the notable architecture from the period comes from France and Germany, under the Merovingians and the Carolingians and the Ottonians. Other regions also have examples of architecture from this period, including Croatia, England and Iberia (especially in Asturias and León). In Lombardy, the pre-Romanesque style included many Romanesque features and is therefore known as the First Romanesque.[1]

Romanesque

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Pisa Cathedral and the Leaning Tower in the Pisan Romanesque style.

The Romanesque style was predominant across Europe during the 11th and 12th centuries. It is characterized by rounded arches, by barrel or groin vaulting and by thick walls. The first and greatest patrons of Romanesque architecture came from the Church, especially monastic traditions such as Cluniacs and the Cistercians, but examples of Romanesque civic and military buildings survive.[1][2]

The term 'Romanesque' (literally meaning 'in the manner of the Romans') was first used to describe the style in 1819.[3] Although the style did draw on ancient Roman architecture, it was ultimately an original style and had a wider range of influences than the name suggests.[2]

Examples of Romanesque architecture survive across Europe, including in England, France, Germany, Italy, Spain, Scandinavia and Eastern Europe.[1]

Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, built in the Rayonnant Gothic style between 1238 and 1248.

Gothic

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The Gothic style was predominant across Europe between the late 12th century and the end of the Middle Ages in the 15th century. The key feature of Gothic architecture is pointed arches. Other features, including rib vaulting, exterior buttresses, elaborate tracery and stained glass, are commonly found in Gothic architecture. The choir of the Basilica of Saint-Denis in France, completed in 1144, is considered to be the first wholly Gothic building, combining all of these elements.[4][5]

The term 'Gothic' (literally meaning 'in the manner of the Goths') was first used in the 16th century by Giorgio Vasari. However, the Goths, an ancient Germanic people, had no influence on the Gothic style. The Gothic style actually evolved from Romanesque architecture in France. A number of other factors and styles may have influenced early Gothic architecture. Architecture that combines elements of both the Romanesque and Gothic styles is sometimes referred to as Romano-Gothic.[4]

King's College Chapel, Cambridge, built in the Perpendicular Gothic style between 1446 and 1515.

Scholars have divided Gothic architecture into a number of different periods: Early Gothic in the 12th century, High Gothic (similar to Classic Gothic) in the 13th century, and Late Gothic from the 14th century. During the High Gothic period, Rayonnant was the primary style in France and Decorated was the main style in England. In the Late Gothic period, Flamboyant was the primary style in France (and Spain) and Perpendicular was the main style in England. Although from the 15th century the Gothic style was replaced by Renaissance architecture, marking the end of the Middle Ages and medieval architecture, there were Gothic Revival and Romanesque Revival movements in the nineteenth century.[4]

Both religious and secular examples of medieval Gothic architecture survive, notably a number of cathedrals. Examples survive across Europe, including in Belarus, Czechia, England, France, Italy, Lithuania, the Low Countries, Poland, Portugal, Scandinavia, and Spain. Each country developed a unique style of Gothic architecture, as did many smaller regions, including Southern France, Milan, Venice, Catalonia, Levante, and Valencia. The Brick Gothic style was widespread around the Baltic and in North Germany. Towards the end of the Gothic period, a number of new regional styles emerged, often incorporating elements of Renaissance architecture. These include the Plateresque in Spain, Isabelline in Castile, Manueline in Portugal, and Sondergotik around Germany.[4]

Functions

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Religious architecture

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The floor plan of a cruciform cathedral displays the different sections of the building

The architecture of religious buildings depended on the religion it served, the region it was located in, and the style during the time. Although it is common to see in many floor plans of medieval religious structures a nave – the central part of the church building, transepts-isle crossing the nave, and an altar located on the east side forming the shape of the Latin cross.[6] The buildings with this floor plan are considered cruciform churches, which is seen in a large amount of cathedrals and churches in the Romanesque and Gothic styles across Europe. Many religious buildings also had sacred elements such as relics and reliquaries for there patrons and far-off travelers to see that tells the story of saints and other biblical narratives.[7]

Cologne Cathedral, a Gothic cathedral in Cologne, Germany

The different styles during the middle ages caused churches to have different design elements throughout the time period. In the Romanesque period a common religious building was the basilica.[8] This structures were tall with a rather simple design of a nave, an alter, transepts, and clerestory windows. Gothic cathedrals had features such as stain glass, ribbed vaults, tall piers, buttresses, and pinnacles their structure is very unique due to these details. The cathedrals are also identifiable due to their height, stone structure, and wooden roofs.[9]Some examples of these religious structures are St. Peter's Basilica, and Cologne Cathedral.

Religious structures during the medieval period had a large amount of meaning behind the elements they contained. Many columns or portals for religious buildings tell a story or have some kind of religious symbolism. Some of the commonly displayed biblical narratives are the creation story of Adam and Eve, and judgement day invoking visuals of sin and fear for the viewer.[10] A few examples of these elements are west tympanum of Saint-Lazare,[11] and Lorenzo Ghiberti's Gates of Paradise.[12]

Military architecture

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Zvolen Castle in Slovakia strongly inspired by Italian castles of the fourteenth century
A diagram of a Motte and Bailey Castle

Surviving examples of medieval secular architecture mainly served for defense, these include forts, castles, tower houses, and fortified walls. Fortifications were built during the Middle Ages to display the power of the lords of the land and reassure common folk in their protection of property and livelihood. [13]In the early Middle Ages, fortifications were made from wood and earth, these were called Motte and bailey castles. These consist of a stockade or palisade surrounding an enclosed courtyard and man-made mound. This fortification acted as a passive obstacle that potential enemies would have to face to attack the civilization. However, this method of fortification had its downside including being vulnerable to fires so more methods of fortification were created.

Military architecture began to start being created with stone in the 11th century, it was also used to indicate wealth and power of the are protected with it. Stone was much more durable and provided better defense for the people. They also began to adopt the use of cylindrical ground plans. There were many benefits to a cylindrical shape, it reduced blindspots, they were more resistant, and was especially fireproof.[14] Some examples of cylindrical fortifications are the gate towers at Harlech Castle and the Tour des Pénitents.

Medieval Fortifications also displayed many different defensive elements including, hoardings, loopholes or crosslets, and moats. Hoarding and loopholes were both beneficial for the archers or missile throwers, allowing them to see their targets better. Windows gained a cross-shape for more than decorative purposes, they provided a perfect fit for a crossbowman to shoot invaders from inside safely. Moats were used as a defensive mechanism for keeping attackers further away from the fort, while most were kept dry, moats were much more effective when wet.[15]

Civic architecture

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While much of the surviving medieval architecture is either religious or military, examples of civic and even domestic architecture can be found throughout Europe. Examples include manor houses, town halls, almshouses and bridges, but also residential houses. Walled towns were constructed across Europe, including in Austria.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c "Romanesque". Grove Art Online. doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000072835. Retrieved 2024-12-10.
  2. ^ a b Hicks, Carola (2003-01-01), "Romanesque", The Oxford Companion to Western Art, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662037.001.0001/acref-9780198662037-e-2260, ISBN 978-0-19-866203-7, retrieved 2024-12-09
  3. ^ "Romanesque, n. & adj.", Oxford English Dictionary (3 ed.), Oxford University Press, 2023-03-02, doi:10.1093/oed/9822227393, retrieved 2024-12-09
  4. ^ a b c d "Gothic". Grove Art Online. doi:10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000033435. Retrieved 2024-12-10.
  5. ^ Coldstream, Nicola (2003-01-01), "Gothic", The Oxford Companion to Western Art, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662037.001.0001/acref-9780198662037-e-1090, ISBN 978-0-19-866203-7, retrieved 2024-12-10
  6. ^ Bucher, François (1972). "Medieval Architectural Design Methods, 800-1560". Gesta. 11 (2): 37–51. doi:10.2307/766593. ISSN 0016-920X. JSTOR 766593.
  7. ^ Bonser, Wilfrid (1962). "The Cult of Relics in the Middle Ages". Folklore. 73 (4): 234–256. ISSN 0015-587X. JSTOR 1258503.
  8. ^ Müller, Valentin (1937). "The Roman Basilica". American Journal of Archaeology. 41 (2): 250–261. doi:10.2307/498415. ISSN 0002-9114. JSTOR 498415.
  9. ^ Mark, Robert (1972). "The Structural Analysis of Gothic Cathedrals". Scientific American. 227 (5): 90–101. Bibcode:1972SciAm.227e..90M. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican1172-90. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 24922917.
  10. ^ Alexander, Jonathan J. G. (1993). "Iconography and Ideology: Uncovering Social Meanings in Western Medieval Christian Art". Studies in Iconography. 15: 1–44. ISSN 0148-1029. JSTOR 23923571.
  11. ^ Gislebertus, French, Romanesque. "Church of Saint Lazare, Autun: Apocalypse (Last Judgment)". Art History Survey Collection.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ Ghiberti, Lorenzo, Florentine. "Baptistry of San Giovanni, Florence: Gates of Paradise – East Doors". Ghiberti's Gates of Paradise Collection.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ Warner, Philip (1971). The medieval castle: life in a fortress in peace and war. New York: Taplinger Pub. Co. ISBN 978-0-8008-5186-6.
  14. ^ Kaufmann, Joseph Erich; Kaufmann, Hanna Wanda (2001). The Medieval fortress: castles, forts and walled cities of the Middle Age. Conshohocken (Pa.): Combined Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58097-062-4.
  15. ^ Oulmas, Mohand; Abdessemed-Foufa, Amina; Avilés, Angel Benigno Gonzalez; Conesa, José Ignacio Pagán (January 2024). "Assessing the Defensibility of Medieval Fortresses on the Mediterranean Coast: A Study of Algerian and Spanish Territories". ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information. 13 (1): 2. doi:10.3390/ijgi13010002. hdl:10045/139477. ISSN 2220-9964.

Further reading

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  • Braun, Hugh, An Introduction to English Mediaeval Architecture, London: Faber and Faber, 1951.
  • "Building the House of God: Architectural Metaphor and The Mystic Ark," Codex Aquilarensis: Revista de arte medieval (2016)
  • Fletcher, Banister; Cruickshank, Dan, Sir Banister Fletcher's a History of Architecture, Architectural Press, 20th edition, 1996 (first published 1896). ISBN 0-7506-2267-9. Cf. Part Two, Chapter 13.
  • Hillson, J., Buchanan, A., Webb, N , Digital Analysis of Vaults in English Medieval Architecture, London: Taylor & Francis (2021).
  • Rudolph, Conrad, "Building-Miracles as Artistic Justification in the Early and Mid-Twelfth Century," Radical Art History: Internationale Anthologie, ed. Wolfgang Kersten (1997) 398–410.
  • Rudolph, Conrad, "The Architectural Metaphor in Western Medieval Artistic Culture: From the Cornerstone to The Mystic Ark," The Cambridge History of Religious Architecture, ed. Stephen Murray (2016).
  • Rudolph, Conrad, "Medieval Architectural Theory, the Sacred Economy, and the Public Presentation of Monastic Architecture: The Classic Cistercian Plan," Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 78 (2019) 259–275.
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