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Pilatus PC-21

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PC-21
The PC-21 demonstrator lands at RIAT 2008, England.
General information
TypeAdvanced trainer aircraft
ManufacturerPilatus Aircraft
Designer
Pilatus Aircraft
StatusActive service
Primary usersSwiss Air Force
Number built211[1]
History
Manufactured2002–present
Introduction dateApril 2008
First flight1 July 2002

The Pilatus PC-21 is a turboprop-powered advanced trainer with a stepped tandem cockpit. It is manufactured by Pilatus Aircraft of Switzerland.

Development

[edit]

In November 1997 Pilatus flew a modified PC-7 Mk.II in order to test improvements for a prospective next generation turboprop trainer. As a result of these tests, Pilatus elected to fund the development of a new training system in November 1998; development of the new trainer, designated as the PC-21, formally started in January 1999.[2] The PC-21 would be developed and certified as a completely new training system, aimed at meeting future military customers' specifications in terms of capability and life-cycle costs for the next three decades.[3]

A key aim for the PC-21 was to allow jet aircraft pilots to perform the majority of their training using the type before converting to jet-powered types, allowing operators to make substantial savings. In order to achieve this aim, the new trainer was required to have an expanded performance envelope in terms of aerodynamics, cockpit equipment, flexibility, and ease of maintenance.[2][4][5] In May 2002 Pilatus announced that it aimed for the PC-21 to capture 50% of the global trainer aircraft market between 2005 and 2030.[6][7]

From the start of the aircraft's development, Pilatus aimed for the type to have a predictable cost profile over its full lifespan. To meet this goal, the firm chose to incorporate modern materials, an innovative design concept, and full-scale fatigue analysis.[8] Additionally, accompanying the aircraft itself are integrated training systems to meet the pilot's needs; the full package offered by Pilatus includes synthetic training devices, computer-based training, and classroom instruction.[4] As a result of greater training effectiveness, pilots can graduate with fewer total training hours, reaching the frontline faster and at lower cost.[8] In addition to pilots, various prospective aircrew, such as navigators, weapons officers, and electronic warfare operators, can be trained using the type's embedded simulation/emulation system.[8]

On 30 April 2002, the rollout of the first PC-21 prototype was performed at Pilatus' factory in Stans, Switzerland; this aircraft conducted its first flight on 1 July of the same year.[9] In May 2003, Pilatus management formally green-lit the program to proceed to full development.[10] On 7 June 2004, a second PC-21 prototype, the construction of which had been delayed to incorporate improvements learnt from assembling the first, made its maiden flight.[9] In December 2004, Switzerland's Federal Office for Civil Aviation granted type certification for the PC-21; civil certification was attained despite it being a military aircraft as this permitted civil maintenance procedures to be used as well as allowing the aircraft to be supplied under private finance arrangements.[8] Individual Swiss military certification for equipment such as ejection seats has been applied as necessary.[11]

On 13 January 2005, the second of the two development aircraft crashed in Buochs, Switzerland, while conducting an aerobatic training flight; the accident resulted in the death of the pilot as well as injuring another person on the ground.[12] In response to the accident, the other PC-21 was grounded for several weeks until Swiss authorities had established that there was no sign of technical malfunction.[13] In August 2006, it was announced that crash investigators had concluded that pilot error had been a primary cause.[14] In late August 2005, the first pre-series production PC-21 performed its maiden flight.[6]

Design

[edit]
A PC-21 on static display, 2009

The Pilatus PC-21 is an advanced single-engine trainer aircraft; it is often referred to by Pilatus as being the "Twenty-first Century Trainer".[3][4] The type can be applied for various training capacities, including basic flying training, advanced flight training, full mission management training, and embedded simulation/emulation. In order to perform these functions, the aircraft possesses a powerful, flexible, and cost-effective integrated training system; providing sufficient ease of use for inexperienced pilots while posing greater challenge to advanced pilots.[8] According to Pilatus, upon product launch, the PC-21 possessed "superior aerodynamic performance when compared with any other turboprop trainer on the market".[3]

The aircraft features a tandem-seating arrangement (student in front/instructor behind) in a bird strike-resistant glass canopy with allround vision. The cabin, which is pressurized, is equipped with an On-Board Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS), air conditioning, and Martin-Baker CH16C Zero-Zero ejection seats.[3][8] The flight controls, which are fully balanced and harmonized, are optimized for ease of operation and overall effectiveness.[8] An anti-g system is also present in order to minimize the effects of high g-forces experienced during tactical training and aerobatic maneuvers. Pilots are able to spend a greater amount of time concentrating on the aircraft's external situation and upon mission data inputs due to an ergonomic design approach, ease-of-use controls, and clear visual/system data displays.[8] In addition, a full autopilot and civil flight management system are also present.[11]

The PC-21 is powered by a single Pratt & Whitney Canada PT6A-68B turboprop engine of 1,600 shaft horse power, which drives a five-bladed graphite scimitar propeller manufactured by Hartzell;[3][8] it has been claimed by Pilatus that the PC-21 possesses speed and climb rates previously normally performed only by jet-powered aircraft.[15] It is also fitted with a high-speed profile wing, rated for maneuvers up to 8g, complete with hydraulically-assisted ailerons and spoilers which enable the execution of fighter-like rates of roll and other maneuvers.[3][15] In order to make the aircraft easy to fly at low speeds, crucial to the advanced trainer role, the PC-21 is furnished with a digital power management system and the rudder control system is equipped with an automatic yaw compensator/suppression system to compensate for airspeed and engine power changes.[3][8][15]

Underside of a PC-21 in flight

A key feature of the PC-21 is the embedded simulation and training suite, which provides cross-platform cockpit emulation, weapons simulation, stores management system, simulated radar and electronic warfare, a tactical situation display, and data link functionality.[8][10] Key to this is the Mission Support System (MSS), which comprises the Mission Planning System (MPS) and Mission Debriefing System (MDS); data can be loaded and unloaded from these, which is compatible with ground-based stations for pre-flight configuration or post-mission analysis.[8] The integrated mission computer is of an open architecture, allowing for third-party modifications and upgrades to take place; software can also be customized to conform to customer preferences.[8][16] Critical and non-critical software are also deliberately separated.[3]

The cockpit of the PC-21 features a high level of systems integration and conforms to modern avionics standards. The systems of the forward and rear cockpits can be 'de-coupled' between the student and instructor; the instructor may exercise real-time manipulation of the student's displays, sensor performance, and system modes such as to create synthetic air-to-air radar targets, artificial non-safety critical system failures, and controlled data degradation.[8][17] The aircraft's fully digital glass cockpit features three large colour liquid crystal displays (LCD), one performing as the primary flight display (PFD) and two multi-function displays (MFDs) for system/mission management, in addition to CMC Electronics-provided head-up displays (HUD) for both the pilot and instructor.[8][18] The trim gauge is the only analogue dial in the cockpit.[7] For control simplicity, a Hands on Throttle and Stick (HOTAS) control philosophy has been followed. Both the display and control systems present also resemble their counterparts used upon modern front-line combat aircraft for greater realism during training; and can be further customized in order to be more representative of specific combat aircraft.[11][17] The multi-sensor navigation system is capable of operating under a military tactical mode as well as a civil navigation mode.[8]

Operational history

[edit]
A PC-21 landing at RAF Fairford, England, 2010

In the Armament Program 2006, the Swiss Parliament approved an initial purchase of the PC-21 for the Swiss Air Force. By April 2008, four PC-21 have been accepted by the Swiss Air Force following the passing of acceptance trials, and flight operations were set to start in July that year.[19] In December 2010, the Swiss Air Force placed an order for another two aircraft.[20][21]

In November 2006, the Republic of Singapore Air Force (RSAF) awarded a service contract to Lockheed Martin Simulation, Training and Support (LMSTS) to deliver 19 PC-21 aircraft, to support the RSAF's Basic Wings training course at RAAF Base Pearce in Australia under a public–private partnership (PPP) arrangement, replacing the SIAI-Marchetti S.211.[22][23] Singapore was the first export customer for the PC-21.[24] On 21 January 2008, the first RSAF PC-21 completed its flight test prior to being accepted into service.[25][26] On 13 July 2008, the type began to provide the RSAF with basic flying training, by which point a further six aircraft had been delivered.[27]

During the 2009 Dubai Airshow, the United Arab Emirates announced an order of 25 PC-21 trainers for the United Arab Emirates Air Force (UAEAF) to replace its aging fleet of Pilatus PC-7s.[28] On 22 November 2010, the UAEAF's first PC-21 performed its maiden flight.[29][30] In July 2012, it was announced that the Qatar Air Force had placed an order for a complete pilot training system from Pilatus centering upon the PC-21. The package included ground-based training devices, logistical support and maintenance in addition to 24 PC-21 aircraft.[31][32] On 1 October 2014, the Qatar Air Force formally received its first batch of PC-21 trainers.[33][34]

On 23 May 2012, Saudi Arabia signed a £1.6 billion ($2.5 billion) contract for a comprehensive next-generation military pilot training system, comprising 22 BAE Systems Hawk advanced jet trainers in addition to 55 PC-21 trainers.[35][36] In early June 2014, Pilatus commenced delivery of the first six PC-21s to Saudi Arabia;[37] by the end of 2015, this had risen to 46 PC-21s delivered.[38]

The PC-21 was one of the submissions for the Royal Australian Air Force's project AIR 5428, which sought a replacement of its Pilatus PC-9s;[39][40] in September 2015, it was announced that the consortium comprising Lockheed Martin, Pilatus and Hawker Pacific ("Team 21"), had won the bid to provide 49 PC-21s to the Australian Defence Force.[41][42]

In August 2015, Pilatus received a contract to deliver nine PC-9Ms to the Royal Jordanian Air Force, but in April 2016 changed the order to eight PC-21s. Deliveries were due to start in January 2017 under the original deal.[43]

In January 2017, Pilatus received a contract for 17 PC-21s by the French Department of Defense as a new training aircraft.[44] On 31 August 2018, France's defence procurement agency Direction générale de l'armement announced the arrival of the first two PC-21s. The delivery of the remaining aircraft is scheduled to be completed in 2019.[45]

The PC-21 has been evaluated by the Spanish Air Force (along with the Beechcraft T-6 Texan II and the PZL-130 Orlik III), as a possible substitute for its ENAER T-35 Pillan and CASA C-101 Aviojet trainer aircraft.[46] January 2020 saw the Spanish Air Force confirm an order for 24 PC-21 aircraft, which will replace mainly the CASA C-101 Aviojet, but will also take over advanced training which is currently carried out on the T-35 Pillan.[47]

The Belgian Air Force is also considering the PC-21, among other platforms, to potentially replace its fleet of SF260 Marchetti trainers, which are nearing the end of their service lives.[48]

Operators

[edit]
Main countries in which the Swiss Pilatus PC-21 aircraft operates in the world.
Pair of PC-21s, 2004

Current operators

[edit]
 Australia (49)
 France (17 + 9)
 Jordan (12)
 Qatar (24)
 Saudi Arabia (55)
 Singapore (19)
  • Republic of Singapore Air Force: launch customer; operates 19 in Australia on Basic Wings Course (BWC) as part of a contract for availability, together with Lockheed Martin and Hawker Pacific.
 Spain (24 + 16)
  • Spanish Air and Space Force: 40 ordered in November 2019, first delivery in 2020.[56] 24 at the end of 2022, the remaining 16 to be delivered from 2023 to 2025.
  Switzerland (8)
 United Arab Emirates (25)
UK (2)

Future operators

[edit]
 Canada (19)
  • SkyAlyne was selected to train the future Canadian Air Force pilot in cooperation with CAE and KF Aerospace through the programme FAcT (Future Aircrew Training). The pilots will be trained on Grob 120TP, PC-21, King Air 260, H135 and Dash 8-400 depending on the assignment.[58][59]

Potential customers

[edit]
 Bulgaria
 Malaysia
 Sweden

Specifications (PC-21)

[edit]
The Pilatus PC-21; note the stepped tandem cockpit
External videos
video icon Swiss Air Force PC-21 flight demonstration at the Breitling Sion Airshow 2011
video icon In-cockpit video of PC-12 takeoff
video icon PC-21s at Koor Airport, Qatar

Data from Pilatus Aircraft[3][8]

General characteristics

  • Crew: 2
  • Length: 11.233 m (36 ft 10 in)
  • Wingspan: 9.108 m (29 ft 11 in)
  • Height: 3.74 m (12 ft 3 in)
  • Wing area: 15.221 m2 (163.84 sq ft)
  • Empty weight: 2,270 kg (5,004 lb)
  • Max takeoff weight: 3,100 kg (6,834 lb) aerobatic
4,250 kg (9,370 lb) normal

Performance

  • Maximum speed: 685 km/h (426 mph, 370 kn)
  • Stall speed: 170 km/h (110 mph, 92 kn) gear and flaps up (20 km/h (12 mph; 11 kn) less with flaps and gear down)
  • Range: 1,333 km (828 mi, 720 nmi)
  • Service ceiling: 11,580 m (37,990 ft)
  • g limits: +8.0 –4.0 aerobatic / +5.0 to –2.5 utility
  • Rate of climb: 20.317 m/s (3,999.4 ft/min)
  • Wing loading: 208 kg/m2 (43 lb/sq ft)
  • Power/mass: 0.39 kW/kg (0.24 hp/lb)

Armament

  • Hardpoints: Provisions provided for 4× under-wing and 1× centerline external store stations, capable of mounting up to 1,150 kg (2,540 lb) of payload of air-to-ground weapons to operate in the counter-insurgency role. [65]

See also

[edit]

Related development

Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era

References

[edit]
Notes
  1. ^ "Handover of the First PC-21 to QinetiQ". pilatus-aircraft.com. 18 July 2018. Archived from the original on 6 October 2018. Retrieved 6 October 2018.
  2. ^ a b Hoyle, Craig. "Switzerland special: Pilatus the success story." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 17 March 2008.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Pilatus: PC-21 fact sheet" (PDF). Pilatus Aircraft Ltd. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 April 2010. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  4. ^ a b c "The NextGen Trainer." Archived 2008-06-13 at the Wayback Machine Pilatus Aircraft, Retrieved: 22 March 2016.
  5. ^ "PC-21 set to revolutionise training for air forces." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 22 July 2002.
  6. ^ a b "Swiss air force poised to acquire six PC-21s." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 13 September 2005.
  7. ^ a b Wastnage, Justin. "Pilatus aims for half of trainer sales with PC-21." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 7 May 2002.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "PC-21: 21st Century Training for 21st Century Air Forces." Archived 2016-04-09 at the Wayback Machine Pilatus Aircraft, Retrieved: 23 March 2016.
  9. ^ a b "Pilatus flies PC-21 and aims for certification in 2004." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 9 July 2002.
  10. ^ a b Penny, Stewart. "Pilatus unveils simulation system for PC-21 trainer." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 3 June 2003.
  11. ^ a b c Collins, Peter. "FLIGHT TEST: Pilatus PC-21 – Fast learner." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 2 December 2008.
  12. ^ Wastnage, Justin. "Test pilot killed in PC-21 accident." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 18 January 2005.
  13. ^ "PC-21 grounding lifted after crash." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 1 February 2005.
  14. ^ Wastnage, Justin. "January 2005 crash of prototype Pilatus PC-21 attributed to pilot error in official crash report." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 25 August 2006.
  15. ^ a b c "Aircraft Data." Archived 2008-06-13 at the Wayback Machine Pilatus Aircraft, Retrieved: 22 March 2016.
  16. ^ Hoyle, Craig. "Pilatus to adapt PC-21." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 14 November 2006.
  17. ^ a b "A Cockpit for Maximum Training Value." Archived 2008-06-13 at the Wayback Machine Pilatus Aircraft, Retrieved: 22 March 2016.
  18. ^ "Integrated cockpit is pillar of new product strategy." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 15 June 2005.
  19. ^ "Acceptance of the first four Pilatus PC-21 by armasuisse" (Press release). Swiss Federation. Archived from the original on 27 February 2009. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  20. ^ Stans (17 December 2010). "Pilatus Wins PC-21 Follow-up Order From the Swiss Air Force". Pilatus Aircraft. Archived from the original on 29 July 2012. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
  21. ^ Trimble, Stephen. "Pilatus receives follow-on PC-21 trainer order from Swiss air force." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 17 December 2010.
  22. ^ "PC-21s to Replace S211s for RSAF's Basic Wings Training." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine defense-aerospace, 3 November 2006.
  23. ^ Wastnage, Justin. "Lockheed Martin Pilatus team win Singapore trainer deal, launch of PC-21 production now possible." Archived 2016-04-04 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 3 November 2006.
  24. ^ David, Donald. "Australia Joins Singapore in the PC-21 Club." Archived 2016-02-16 at the Wayback Machine AIN Online, 14 February 2016.
  25. ^ "RSAF Pilatus PC-21 Makes its Maiden Flight" (Press release). Ministry of Defence (MINDEF). 15 February 2008. Archived from the original on 5 August 2012. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  26. ^ Warwick, Graham."PICTURE: Pilatus flies first PC-21 for Singapore." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 19 February 2008.
  27. ^ "Basic Flying Training on the Pilatus PC-21 Aircraft Trainer Commences" (Press release). MINDEF. 13 July 2008. Archived from the original on 30 August 2008. Retrieved 29 April 2010.
  28. ^ Craig, Hoyle (17 November 2009). "Dubai 09: UAE signs deal for 25 PC-21 trainers". Flight Global. Archived from the original on 22 November 2009. Retrieved 30 September 2012.
  29. ^ "UAE's first PC-21 flown". Air Forces Monthly. No. 274. Key Publishing Ltd. February 2011. p. 26. ISSN 0955-7091.
  30. ^ Hoyle, Craig. "PICTURES: UAE's first PC-21 makes flight debut." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 23 November 2010.
  31. ^ Pocock, Chris. "Pilatus PC-21 Scores Another Pilot Training Win in Qatar." Archived 2018-12-18 at the Wayback Machine AIN Online, 27 July 2012.
  32. ^ Hoyle, Craig. "First Qatari PC-21 enters ground test." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 20 February 2014.
  33. ^ "Emiri Air Force receives first batch of PC-21 aircraft." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Gulf Times, 1 October 2014.
  34. ^ Hoyle, Craig. "First PC-21s head for Qatar." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 30 September 2014.
  35. ^ a b Hoyle, Craig. "Saudi Arabia signs 102-aircraft military training deal." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 23 May 2012.
  36. ^ Trimble, Stephen, "Pilatus PC-21s in package deal with Hawks for Saudi air force." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 17 May 2012.
  37. ^ Hoyle, Craig. "Saudi Arabia gets first six PC-21 trainers." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 11 June 2014.
  38. ^ Hoyle, Craig. "Follow-on purchase to boost Saudi Hawk renewal." Archived 2016-04-06 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 19 February 2016.
  39. ^ Pittaway 2010, p. 20.
  40. ^ Waldron, Greg. "Lockheed, Pilatus, Hawker Pacific bid for RAAF basic trainer deal." Archived 2016-03-28 at the Wayback Machine Flight International, 3 October 2013.
  41. ^ "Lockheed Martin Wins Air 5428." Australian Defence Magazine, 13 May 2015.
  42. ^ Pittaway, Nigel. "Australia To Buy PC-21 Trainers, Relocate Basic Training." Defense News, 11 September 2015.
  43. ^ "Jordan amends Pilatus order to take PC-21 trainers". FlightGlobal. 11 April 2016. Archived from the original on 17 April 2016. Retrieved 13 April 2016.
  44. ^ "L'Armée de l'Air sélectionne l'avion-école Pilatus PC-21". www.avionslegendaires.net (in French). 2017-01-04. Archived from the original on 1 July 2017. Retrieved 28 October 2017.
  45. ^ "France receives first two Pilatus PC-21 training aircraft". Jane's 360. 5 September 2018. Archived from the original on 5 September 2018. Retrieved 5 September 2018.
  46. ^ "Evaluación del PC-21 Pilatus como entrenador Elemental/Básico/Avanzado", Ejército del Aire de España (778), November 2008
  47. ^ "The Spanish Air Force Buys PC-21 Training System Including 24 Aircraft". Pilatus Aircraft.
  48. ^ "Plusieurs options à l'étude pour remplacer les avions d'entraînement Marchetti". 10 February 2021.
  49. ^ "Lockheed's "Team 21" finally confirmed as AIR 5428 winning bidder". Australian Aviation. australianaviation.com.au. 2015-09-06. Archived from the original on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 27 October 2015.
  50. ^ Hoyle, Craig (17 August 2017). "Australia welcomes first six PC-21s to East Sale". Flight Global. London. Archived from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
  51. ^ "Pilatus Sells 21 PC-21s, Including 17 for the French Air Force". Pilatus Aircraft. 4 January 2017. Archived from the original on 17 August 2017. Retrieved 17 August 2017.
  52. ^ Lagneau, Laurent (2021-07-17). "La France commande 9 avions d'entraînement PC-21 de plus auprès du constructeur suisse Pilatus". Zone Militaire (in French). Retrieved 2023-06-16.
  53. ^ "L'Armée française passe commande de 9 avions à la Suisse". BFM BUSINESS (in French). Retrieved 2023-06-16.
  54. ^ Le premier PC-21 jordanien a volé ! Archived 2016-12-18 at the Wayback Machine, 24heures.com.
  55. ^ Craig, Hoyle (23 July 2012). "Qatar signs deal for 24 Pilatus PC-21s". Flight Global. Archived from the original on 6 November 2012. Retrieved 29 September 2012.
  56. ^ Calvo, Luis (27 November 2019). "Pilatus PC-21 para el Ejército del Aire". Fly News. Retrieved 27 November 2019.
  57. ^ ETPS activities soar after major fleet renewal
  58. ^ Finnerty2024-05-29T18:04:00+01:00, Ryan. "Canada announces $8bn acquisition of 71 trainer aircraft for RCAF". Flight Global. Retrieved 2024-05-31.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  59. ^ Patrick, Kümmerling (2023-12-26). "Le Pilatus PC-21 pour le Canada !". Avia news (in French). Retrieved 2023-12-26.
  60. ^ Янев, Симеон (2024-07-16). "Румен Радев литна с ново поколение учебно-тренировъчен самолет". News.bg (in Bulgarian). Retrieved 2024-07-17.
  61. ^ "Why the Pilatus PC-21 is a revolutionary military trainer". www.key.aero. 2023-08-17. Retrieved 2023-11-02.
  62. ^ https://www.flightglobal.com/download?ac=90688 [bare URL]
  63. ^ Hoyle2014-03-31T15:15:08+01:00, Craig. "Saab, Pilatus to pitch PC-21 trainer to Sweden". Flight Global. Retrieved 2023-11-02.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  64. ^ Pilatus PC-21 Brochure Pilatus
  65. ^ Simpson, Rod (17 August 2023). "WHY THE PILATUS PC-21 IS A REVOLUTIONARY MILITARY TRAINER". Key Aero. Archived from the original on 3 November 2023. Retrieved 11 April 2024.
Bibliography
  • Pittaway, Nigel (March 2010). "ADF pilot training under contract". Defence Today. 8 (2): 20–21. ISSN 1447-0446.
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